Outsourcing American Jobs Hurt U.s. Economy Essay

Outsourcing American Jobs Hurt U.S. Economy The dawn of the outsourcing era. Many large U.S. corporations cultivates outsourcing faster than we can imagine. The trend that began in the late 1970 and picked up speed in the 1900s with the opening trade with China, India, and Eastern Europe (â€Å"Outsourcing: What’s the true Impact†). In its broadest sense, outsourcing is simply contracting out functions that had been done in-house—a longtime U.S. practice (â€Å"Globalization: Threat or Opportunity†). Subsequently, outsourcing is an essential part of globalization; and it is the combination of markets through the cooperation of internalization, federal, and state governments with corporate companies to produce products on a reduce production cost, and offer services on lower labor cost. When a U.S. manufacture product, and buys material from an intermediate supplier from out of the country rather than producing them in-house, that is what is called outsourc ing. Also, when U.S. corporation hires outside contractor out-of-the-country to do U.S. call center services for less labor cost that is outsourcing. When a company deals out its operational task, such as payroll, accounting, and software operations that is outsourcing. Obviously, all of these examples seem to benefit and in favor of the corporations. To get the clear understanding of outsourcing for major corporation perspective, I have interviewed IKEA’s U.S. Deputy Retail Country Manager Rob Olson about outsourcing—SwedishShow MoreRelatedOutsourcing American Jobs Hurt U.s. Economy1560 Words   |  7 PagesOutsourcing American Jobs Hurt U.S. Economy Globalization is the integration of markets through the cooperation of internalization, federal, and state governments with corporate companies to provide low-cost products. Subsequently, outsourcing is an essential part of this globalization. However, what exactly is outsourcing? In its broadest sense, outsourcing is simply contracting out functions that had been done in-house—a longtime U.S. practice (â€Å"Globalization: Threat or Opportunity†). When a URead MoreThe Effects of Outsourcing in America Essay1299 Words   |  6 PagesSmith, cited by Timothy Taylor, defines outsourcing as a task that can be done within a group, but is instead done by a third-party group for less money. While outsourcing service benefits American firms, studies show it takes jobs from middle-class Americans and adversely affects the American economy; however, other research proposes that outsourcing might actually benefit the American economy. One effect of outsourcing is that it economically benefits American firms both domestically and abroad, andRead More Outsourcing Essay1680 Words   |  7 PagesOutsourcing Outsourcing has become a very popular issue, and it has reached an all-time climax. Firms are starting to do this a lot more than than in the previous decade. What is outsourcing? Outsourcing is defined as â€Å"The procuring of services or products, such as the parts used in manufacturing a motor vehicle, from an outside supplier or manufacturer in order to cut costs.† And it has become a big issue in our country. There are thousands of articles and books written on it, and you can attendRead MoreOutsourcing : Effect Of Outsourcing1631 Words   |  7 Pages OUTSOURCING : EFFECTS OF OUTSOURCING IN AMERICA DHANASHREE AROTE 83360 INDEX Serial No. Topic Page No. 1. Introduction 3 2. Benefits of Outsourcing 4. 3. Negative Effects 5 4. Managing Outsourcing 7 5. 6 Key Trends 8 6. Conclusion 8 7. References 9 INTRODUCTION In today’s global business competitive environment, business organizations must innovate and adapt new strategies to sustain revenue generation, value while remaining competitive. Organizations have embraced outsourcingRead MoreHow is outsourcing affecting American Citizens, its not only taking jobs away from us Americans1400 Words   |  6 PagesHow is outsourcing affecting American Citizens, its not only taking jobs away from us Americans but is also hurting our US economy. Outsourcing is when a company such as Apple sends jobs overseas to a country such as China and has factory workers there assemble the product for a much lower price. Yes this lowers the price of products but we have to take into account how many jobs this it taking from American citizens. Outsourcing jobs does lower the price of products but jobs should stay here inRead MoreEffects of Outsourcing Jobs to Overseas641 Words   |  3 PagesBecause of outsourcing jobs to overseas many American workers lo st their jobs or compelled to work for much less compensation. This trend leads to the shrinkage of middle class income bracket and the reduction of the family’s standard of living. Besides, due to the elusive future employment status and the financial problems, many people have to live hand to mouth, and many more have to cut their expenditures in order to survive this dreadful and unpleasant situation. More importantly, the reductionRead MoreOutsourcing For A Human Resource Essay1698 Words   |  7 Pagescourse oppose or favor outsourcing jobs overseas. Secondly, this essay will deliberate upon the pros and cons of outsourcing overseas to a developing nation. Additionally, this paper will touch upon a situation with a human resource (HR) manager by the name of Jenny. With respect to, identifying whether Jenny should focus on her current career with her company or challenge her CEO contingent upon her own personal values and principles in relation to overseas outsourcin g. Moreover, this paperRead MoreEffects of Outsourcing on Companies Employees and the Economy1634 Words   |  7 PagesEffects of Outsourcing Timothy Nicotera University of New Hampshire Abstract This paper will look through the effects that outsourcing has on American business, the economy, and social issues now as well as into the future. Outsourcing is a growing trend among companies large and small as an attempt to gain a competitive advantage in both local and global markets. There are both positive and negative impacts of this way of doing business that need to be realized and accounted for in order forRead MorePest Analysis About the American Manufacturing Industry1259 Words   |  6 Pagesabout the American Manufacturing Industry In the article Can the Future Be Built in America, the author Pete Engardio describes the crucial issue of the manufacturing industry exodus from the United States and how smarter tax policies, low-cost loans, and industrial zones may help keep factories at home. For over a half century, American manufacturing has dominated the globe. It helped rebuild Europe and Japan and it stimulated the economic growth in China because of outsourcing. During thisRead MoreEssay on Global Outsourcing and Job Loss1953 Words   |  8 PagesGlobal Outsourcing and Job Loss Outsourcing has become a popular trend among United States companies within the last decade. American companies are feeling challenged to raise profits, lower prices, and put their products to market before the competition. International manufacturing is benefiting both consumers and producers in this regard. However, the question of whether or not offshoring is a positive or negative influence on the United States job recovery, in today’s unstable economy still

Civil Disobedience And Martin Luther King s Letter From...

In order to achieve the Good Life, sometimes we have to fight for what we believe in. In those instances, we may be forced to commit actions that may not be looked upon lightly such as committing civil disobedience. In Sophocles s â€Å"Antigone† and Martin Luther King’s â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail†, both, King and Antigone, were supporters and activist of civil disobedience. However, both, Antigone and Martin Luther King had different methods of conducting civil disobedience and viewed civil disobedience differently. Furthermore, Antigone and Martin Luther King were both steadfast in what they believed in and used civil disobedience to fight for their cause. Despite this similarity of theirs, they each had a different approach to carrying out civil disobedience. Antigone crossed the King of Thebes for the honor of her family and it was against the moral law, while King’s justification for his actions was to achieve racial equality for those that w ere oppressed at that time. On the other hand, Antigone was also brash and stubborn in the way she explained her reasoning for her civil disobedience, while on the other hand, Martin Luther King was very humble and subtle with his approach. The difference between Antigone’s and King’s reason for committing civil disobedience is that Antigone wanted to honor and gain pride for her family, while, King wanted to acknowledge the injustice that was occurring to African Americans. Furthermore, Antigone s past was riddled withShow MoreRelatedCivil Disobedience, And Martin Luther King Jr. s Letter From Birmingham Jail1018 Words   |  5 PagesToday, the word disobedience carries a negative connotation that acts as a deterrent for necessary disobedience. The common way in which people view disobedience is as a rejection of a rule, law, or a simple standard. Historically, rules were implemented in ways that were deemed immoral by society. Therefore, civil disobedience is justified to combat immoral standards implemented in society. However, civil disobedience is only justified under these circumstances, mainly for the betterment of societyRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr.’S Persuasion in â€Å"Letter from Bir mingham Jail†1569 Words   |  7 PagesMartin Luther King Jr.’s Persuasion in â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail† After being arrested and imprisoned in Birmingham Jail, Martin Luther King Jr. wrote one of his most famous works to the people of Birmingham, titled â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail on April 16, 1963. This piece speaks of the evils of the segregation laws and how the blacks had been treated unfairly in Birmingham, in an attempt to get the white people to support the desegregation of Birmingham. He had been imprisoned because of hisRead More Henry Thoreau’s Influence on Martin Luther King Jr. Essay898 Words   |  4 PagesHenry Thoreau’s Influence on Martin Luther King Jr. Henry David Thoreau was a great American writer, philosopher, and naturalist of the 1800’s who’s writings have influenced many famous leaders in the 20th century, as well as in his own lifetime. Henry David Thoreau was born in Concord, Massachusetts in 1817, where he was later educated at Harvard University. Thoreau was a transcendentalist writer, which means that he believed that intuition and the individual conscience â€Å"transcend† experienceRead More Exploration of Civil Disobedience in Sophocles Antigone, Kings Letter from Birmingham Jail, and Platos From Crito580 Words   |  3 PagesExploration of Civil Disobedience in Sophocles Antigone, Kings Letter from Birmingham Jail, and Platos From Crito Civil disobedience spawns a major and widely debated issue by many who established by well-known intelligent scholars and many examples of civil disobedience become displayed. The acts of civil disobedience can be noted in major works such as Sophocles?s Antigone, King?s ?Letter from Birmingham Jail?, or even from Plato?s ?from Crito?. A specific claim exemplified throughout theseRead MoreBirmingham Jail Functional Theory1638 Words   |  7 PagesMartin Luther King Jr.’s Letter from a Birmingham Jail (1965) is important from both historical and sociological points of view. It is an example of self-sacrifice as in idea for the of equality of all people. Formally, King addresses this letter that he wrote while in Birmingham jail at the clergymen who opposed his protests. In fact, he applies it to everyone who approves of racism, and considers the methods of nonviolent struggle to be too radical and far fetched from achieving an actual goalRead MoreDevelopment of Transcendentali sm901 Words   |  4 Pageswhile philosophies of civil dispute and nonviolence may seem like a well-accepted idea today, many who fought for this type of negotiation were often considered radical for their introduction of it to society. Among those transcendentalists was Henry David Thoreau, who wrote â€Å"Civil Disobedience†, Mohandas Gandhi, who wrote â€Å"Satyagraha†, and Martin Luther King Jr., who wrote â€Å"Letters from Birmingham Jail†. Henry David Thoreau used the theory of transcendentalism in â€Å"Civil Disobedience.† These three transcendentalistsRead MoreAntigone And Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. s Letter From Birmingham Jail1233 Words   |  5 PagesIn Sophocles’ Antigone and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail†, Antigone and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. used resistance against powerful leaders to follow their morals and make a statement. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s approach towards the reconstruction of society’s cultural understanding of segregation used civil disobedience in a more public and large-scale approach, whereas Antigone’s use of civil disobedience defied the law in a much more private, small-scale way toRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Letter From Birmingham Jail812 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the 1960’s, racism was still a prominent problem in America. The Civil Rights Movement was under way. African Americans were fighting for their basic human rights. One of the most notable figures of the Civil Rights Movement was Martin Luther King Jr. He fought for African American’s rights using nonviolent resistance; however, during a protest in Birmingham, Alabama, Dr. King was thrown into jail. While in his jail cell, Dr. King wrote a letter to clergymen from the Birmingham jail claiming hisRead MoreCivil Disobedience By Henry David Thoreaus Letter From A Birmingham Jail1605 Words   |  7 Pagesbe comparing Civil Disobedienc e by Henry David Thoreau and The Letter from a Birmingham Jail by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr and taking a closer look at their rhetorical devices and strategy’s. In Civil disobedience by Henry David Thoreau shows us the need to prioritize some one’s wellbeing over what the law says. American laws are criticized mostly over slavery and the Mexican-American war. In Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail† was written in response to a letter written byRead More Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.s Letter From a Birmingham Jail Essays1088 Words   |  5 PagesDr. Martin Luther King Jr.s â€Å"Letter From a Birmingham Jail† In King’s essay, â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail†, King brilliantly employs the use of several rhetorical strategies that are pivotal in successfully influencing critics of his philosophical views on civil disobedience. King’s eloquent appeal to the logical, emotional, and most notably, moral and spiritual side of his audience, serves to make â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail† one of the most moving and persuasive literary pieces of the 20th

Cultural barriers free essay sample

Differences in race, sex, religious beliefs, lifestyle and sexual orientation are among many cultural differences that may affect how people communicate in the workplace. Resolving communications problems caused by cultural differences requires patience, understanding and respect. A major mistake is forming opinions before even engaging in communications. Opinions reached before an opportunity to discuss the matter makes resolving conflict difficult. Besides the obvious difficulty in understanding people whose language is different; there are other factors that challenge people who are trying to work harmoniously with others of a different background. People from different parts of the world have a different frame of reference, and they may display emotions differently and display different behaviors. Findings Language Barriers Language is a very complex thing, and communication between people speaking different languages is difficult. Language is a way of looking at the world, and even skilled translators can find it tricky to convey complex emotions and concepts, which can lead to misunderstandings. When you think about how often you misunderstand someone speaking your language, you can imagine how hard it is to get the full meaning from something a person with a different cultural background is saying to you. Hostile Stereotypes Inaccurate and hostile stereotypes of people from other places can be a barrier to communication in the workplace. Stereotypes are assumptions people make about the traits of members of a group. For example, a stereotypical American is thought to be impatient and arrogant as well as friendly and tolerant. The danger is entertaining stereotypes is that an individual is thought to possess characteristics that are ascribed to the group. Obviously, not all Americans are impatient and arrogant, nor are they all friendly and tolerant. Prejudging an individual can lead to misconceptions and barriers to communication. Behavior Differences Behavioral differences between employees of different cultures can cause misunderstandings. Every culture has guidelines about what is considered appropriate behavior. In some cultures, looking someone in the eye when they are talking to you is considered rude, while in other cultures refraining from doing so is considered disrespectful. Getting right to the point at a business meeting may be considered impolite by some, who expect to have small talk before the business discussion. Likewise, in some cultures, people talking to each other give each other space, while in other cultures, they stand close. These differences can be barriers to effective communication if they are not recognized. Emotional Display What is considered an appropriate display of emotion can differ from culture to culture. In some countries, displaying anger, fear or frustration in the workplace is considered inappropriate in a business setting. People from these cultures keep their emotions hidden and only discuss the factual aspects of the situation. In other cultures, participants in a discussion are expected to reveal their emotions. You can imagine what misunderstandings can arise if a businessperson displays strong emotion in the company of employees who feel that such behavior is out of place. Communication Challenges Cultural and language differences can hinder effective communication. Workers who are not fluent in the primary language used in the workplace may have difficulty expressing their needs or responding to requests from colleagues. If their job involves customer contact, they may have difficulty understanding a customer inquiry and provide incorrect or misleading information. A customer who is unable to clearly understand the worker due to a heavy accent or lack of command of the language may become frustrated and take his business elsewhere. Employee Resistance If an organization is attempting to convert from a homogeneous workforce to one that is more culturally diverse, some members of the original workforce may resist the change. They may be unwilling or unable to adapt to the ways of workers from different cultural backgrounds than their own and may even resent their presence. For management, resistance poses a significant challenge to creating a work environment that fosters teamwork and harmony, and employee morale may suffer if management cannot find ways to overcome this barrier. Development of Cliques A diverse workforce could lead to the formation of cliques where workers of similar cultural backgrounds or who speak the same primary language bond together. Individuals may have little social interaction with those outside of their clique, engaging them only out of business necessity. In culturally integrated work groups, some members may choose to speak their primary language with each other instead of the primary workplace language, leaving others to feel they are being excluded from the conversation. Management Style Managers may face the obstacle of having to adapt their management style to meet the needs of workers from a different culture. Workers from Latin American countries, for instance, often believe that asking questions of a supervisor are a sign of disrespect and that they should simply do as they are told. A supervisor who implements an open-door policy may become frustrated with the lack of input from these workers and have to take steps to convince them that their suggestions are encouraged and valued. Discussions Differences in race, sex, religious beliefs, lifestyle and sexual orientation are among many cultural differences that may affect how people communicate in the workplace. Resolving communications problems caused by cultural differences requires patience, understanding and respect. A major mistake is forming opinions before even engaging in communications. Opinions reached before an opportunity to discuss the matter makes resolving conflict difficult. Respect Treating people as individuals regardless of culture is sometimes a key to resolving communication issues. For example, it is improper to assume that a woman takes a certain position on a subject because she is a woman. Such generalizations can cause conflict in communication. Not all people who are members of the same culture will react to communication in the same way or offer the same opinion on a subject. However, it is true that cultural backgrounds may affect how people act, behave and communicate. But that does not mean people of a certain culture will all communicate or react to events in the same way. Knowledge Learning more about other lifestyles and cultures helps people avoid conflict in communication, particularly in multicultural settings. Information on cultural awareness is widely available in books at public libraries. Open and honest discussions about cultural differences with friends and colleagues are helpful as well. Learning more about cultural differences helps avoid jumping to unfair or wrong assumptions about a person’s statements or other communication efforts. Blame Conflict in communications between cultures also is avoidable when all parties resist assigning blame. Two companies merging staffs in a business transaction may have different styles of managing and working. Putting the teams together can cause an immediate clash of cultures, with problems intensified if both sides always blame the other for problems and breakdown in communication. Simply placing the blame on others is not constructive and can make communication problems worse. Listening Skills Focusing on listening well with an open mind also helps resolve cultural communications problems. Paying close attention to words used in a conversation or other form of communication can help resolve these problems. It’s also important to pay attention to the context of the discussion and the tone of the communication. Conclusion Recommendations Learning how to confront cultural barriers to communication is important in the workplace as well as personal life. Diversity is commonplace, and it can cause barriers to communication, but confronting these cultural barriers can have a positive impact on your life. The best way to confront barriers in an awkward intercultural experience is to talk, ask questions, and listen. By asking questions and patiently listening you are actively engaging and showing respect for cultural differences. In order to confront barriers in communication you must talk, ask questions, and listen. It is also important to think before you speak and act. If there is an awkward situation you do not want to make it more awkward by doing or saying something out of bounds. If you are unaware of another’s cultural differences it is easy to mistakenly offend someone. Remaining silent gives you time to think; it also prevents miscommunication . If you think about the way you say things, the things you say will be more effective in confronting cultural barriers to communication. Another important way to make awkward situations easier is to try to use examples to express ideas. I like drawing pictures to illustrate ideas and points. This is especially helpful when you do not speak a common language with someone. This allows you to clarify what you are trying to say and make sure there is no miscommunication. Reiterating what someone has said to you is another way to avoid awkward miscommunications and conflicts. Repeating what you think you heard is a good way to clarify. You do not want to act on miscommunication. When someone sees that you are reiterating what they have said to make sure you heard correctly, they understand that you are being respectful and trying to communicate successfully. There are several ways to confront cultural barriers to communication. Simply being respectful by being quiet may be a good idea, but it is also important to ask questions when you are confused and do not want to be offensive. If you are expressing that you are unaware of someone else’s culture, but you are interested in understanding this will show your desire to communicate. This is also good because it shows that you do not know and do not mean offense. When you confront cultural barriers to communication you are expressing your desire to communicate and this is the first step to confronting diversity barriers. References The Multi-Generational Workforce in the Health Care Industry and Human Resources Managers Appraisal Schemes. Author: Ruth Mayhew University of Utah: Examining Gender Differences in Technology Acceptance by Arabian Workers: A Survey Study,Author Chris Joseph The Multicultural Advantage; Diversity in the Workplace: Benefits, Challenges and Solutions; Josh Greenberg

Stylistic Analysis free essay sample

â€Å"On Colonizing Education† By Chief Canassatego Education is usually viewed with a positive connotation. Chief Canassatego, however, sees education as a burden and a set back to his culture. The Virginia government offered Chief Canassatego formal education for his people, leaving him grateful for the opportunity, resentful of the â€Å"colleges of the northern provinces,† unsure of the future. (Cumulative) To Chief Canassatego, the consequences of education are too great to ignore, such as men of his tribe forgetting how to do the seemingly simple tasks that the tribe has done daily for years upon years. Should he allow his people to leave the tribal ways? Should he risk the undermining of his culture? Should he allow his people to forget the skills and teachings of generations that came before? (Rhetorical) After spending an extended period of time living like the people of Virginia, the young men came back, and when they did, â€Å"they were bad runners, ignorant of every means of living in the woods, unable to bear either cold or hunger, knew neither how to build a cabin, take a deer, or kill an enemy, spoke [their] language imperfectly†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He feels resentful that his people have been uncultured by the colleges in Virginia. We will write a custom essay sample on Stylistic Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Along with feelings of resent, Chief Canassatego also feels gratefulness towards the people of Virginia for giving his tribe such an extraordinary offer. Though the offer is good in theory, Chief does not like the numerous negative consequences. As a chief, Canassatego was open to a relevant education; as an Indian, he was closed to a formal education. (Balanced) Similar to his feelings of gratefulness, Chief Canassatego feels so appreciative of the offer that he reciprocates the offer to the Virginians. He does not want to reject them completely so he offers up a compromise: instead of sending his tribe to them, he suggests they send â€Å"a dozen of their sons† to teach them their ways. Eventually, out of the confusing issue related to accepting the offer, Chief Canassatego counters with a compromise. (Periodic) He feels understanding towards the Virginians. Although he disagrees with their methods of education, he understands that â€Å"different nations have different conceptions of things. Understanding that concept helps him to deny the offer kindly and try to compromise with them. In essence, even though he rejects the offer, Chief Canassatego feels resentful towards the â€Å"Colleges of the northern province,† but also feels grateful and appreciative to have been offered such an opportunity. He understands that they have conflicting methods of education, and he even reciprocates the offer. Stylistic Analysis free essay sample The theme of the course paper is concerned with the stylistic analysis of five poems by different authors (D. H. Lawrence, H. W. Longfellow, R. Burns, Ch. Kingsley, B. Googe). The issue of stylistics and stylistic analysis has been extensively studied in recent years and the problem of stylistics has been a subject of special interest. Various scientific paradigms, trends and methods of stylistics and literary studies have been developed and explored in the works by such prominent scholars of pre-soviet, soviet and post-soviet linguistic schools as Larin B.A. , Peshkovsky A. M. , Polivanov E. D. , Scherba L. V. , Galperin I. R. , Akhmanova O. S. , Arnold I. V. , Skrebnev Yu. M. , Golovin B. N. , Kukharenko V. A. , Morohovsky O. M. and many others. â€Å"Thus the term â€Å"stylistics† is not old but the discipline originated from ancient Greek and Roman poetics and rhetoric. Modern poetics is a discipline concerned with the structural forms of literary art, both poetic and pr osaic, and its crucial problem is: what turns a verbal message into a work of art† [10, p. We will write a custom essay sample on Stylistic Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 3]. The term â€Å"stylistics† became associated with detailed linguistic criticism because, at the time it developed, the study of authorial style was a major critical concern, and linguistic analysis, allied to statistics, was popular with the more linguistically inclined critics. According to some modern scholars, it is now moved away from the study of style and towards the study of how meanings and effects are produced by literary texts. Nowadays by stylistics the modern British linguist Henry Widdowson means â€Å"the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation, i. . stylistics is an area of mediation between the two disciplines, the two subjects: language and literature† [18, p. 43]. In R. de Beaugrande’s words, â€Å"stylistics applies linguistics to literature† [2, p. 18]. So, the object of stylistic analysis is language represented in literary texts. Stylistic analysis is a part of literary studies, of any adequate linguistic description . It is practiced as a means of understanding the possible meanings in a text as well as finding out the individual properties of concrete texts or text types. Its ultimate aim is to clarify the message of the author’s work through careful observation and consistent description of language phenomena in the text under study. Done at the junction of linguistic and literary analysis the work is concerned with a number of problems of the poems interpretation, stylistic, linguistic and literary analysis. Although considerable amount of research has been devoted to the problem of the stylistic analysis few attempts have been made to investigate aspects such as structural-semantic parameters of he given poems, lexical and syntactic expressive means, some stylistic devices which are used in these poems. This defines the actuality of the work and its theoretical value. The objective of the paper is to examine the linguistic, stylistic, lexical and syntactic nature of poems, types of expressive means on the different levels of language and their informational significance. The given aim predetermines the concrete tasks of the research. The the sis will cover the following research tasks: 1) to analyse such poems as â€Å"Don’ts† by D. H. Lawrence, â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† (Introduction ) by H. W. Longfellow, â€Å" My Heart’s in the Highlands† by R. Burns, â€Å"Young and Old† by Ch. Kingsley, and â€Å"Out of Sight, Out of Mind† by B. Googe; 2) to point out various types of syntactic and lexical-syntactic stylistic devices in them; 3) to dwell upon their structural, logical-semantic peculiarities and functions; 4) to determine the structural, semantic types of metaphors, metonymies, epithets and similes; 5) to lay emphasis on the great number of themes developed in poems; 6) to give general characteristics of poetic methods of D. H. Lawrence, H. W. Longfellow, R. Burns, Ch. Kingsley, B. Googe. 7) to provide detailed analysis of the stylistic devices employed by the poets in their verses; 8) to give the close observation of the meanings of separate words and word combinations as well as of the significations of the various sentences and supra-phrasal units. So, the object of the paper is poetry by above mentioned poets. The subject is the main themes and stylistic peculiarities of these poems. The materials and theoretical basis for the given course paper were chosen among the research works of the established literary critics and biographers, who studied the life and the distinctive features of poets’ legacy. Special attention was paid to the book by Thomas Crawford â€Å"Burns. A study of the Poems and Songs†, Arvin Newton â€Å" Longfellow:His Life and Work† and other related works. The methodic base on the work became the works of Galperin I. R. , Kucharenko V. A. , Lototska K. materials from the Internet, different types of dictionaries, World Book Encyclopedia. In accordance with the purpose and tasks of the paper the following methods of investigation were used: words definitions analysis, contextual and systematic analysis of the poems, interpretational and stylistic analysis of the rhetorical figures for revealing the informational value of expressive means. The topicality of the research paper is determined by the necessity of systematic and resumptive comprehension of the notion â€Å"stylistic analysis†. The scientific novelty of the work consists in the fact that we will provide with the thorough analysis of poems on taxonomic, content-grasping, semantic, stylistic and functional stages of investigation. Besides, we will try to investigate the use of polysemanticism of the word in combination with repetition in such poems as â€Å"Don’ts† by D. H. Lawrence and â€Å"Song of Hiawatha† (Introduction) by H. W. Longfellow. From the theoretical point of view, this work presents the comprehensive study of lexical, syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices that makes it possible to reveal its lingvo- stylistic and functional features. So, the theoretical value of the given research paper is based on analysis of poets’ verses which promote the further development of fundamental principles of the theory of poetry. The practical value of the work lies in the fact that the results of the investigation can be used in the courses of lectures in stylistics, seminars in style and text interpretation and also can be useful for practical courses of English language. The course paper consists of an introduction, three chapters, conclusion and list of references. The introduction explains the topicality of the research paper, underlines its theoretical and practical value and identifies the theme, aim, tasks, object, subject, methods of investigation of the work. The first chapter deals with the stylistic peculiarities of D. H. Lawrence and H. W. Longfellow’s poetry. Mainly it is focused on the polysemantic aspect and lingvo-stylistic potential of such poems as â€Å"Don’ts† and â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† (Introduction). The second chapter is dedicated to the detailed analysis of poem by Robert Burns which is called â€Å"My Heart’s in the Highlands†. It involves investigation of the style, expressive means, syntax of the given poem. The third chapter is concerned with two poems: â€Å"Young and Old† by Ch. Kingsley and â€Å" Out of Sight, Out of Mind† by B. Googe. Considerable emphasis is put on the lexical, syntactic expressive means and the stylistic devices at different levels. To illustrate the use of rhetorical figures these poems are analysed, considering theoretical issues of modern Stylistics. Chapter 1 Stylistic peculiarities of D. H. Lawrence and H. W. Longfellow’s poetry 1. 1. The use of polysemanticism of the word in combination with repetition in poems by D. H. Lawrence and H. W. Longfellow. The poem â€Å"Don’ts† which is under consideration was written by David Herbert Richards Lawrence ? an English novelist, poet, playwright, essayist, literary critic and painter. Although best known for his novels, D. H. Lawrence wrote almost 800 poems. His early works clearly place him in the school of Georgian poets. What typified the entire movement, and Lawrence’s poems of the time, were well-worn poetic tropes and deliberately archaic language. He wrote in a very free verse form, unbounded by traditional structures. Much of his work deals with issue of the working classes, relationships between men, women and the natural world. D. H. Lawrence was especially fond of writing about animals, flowers, and other aspects of nature ? usually in a deeply symbolic manner. His poetry collections include â€Å"Love Poems and others† (1913), â€Å"Amores† (1916), â€Å"Look! We have come through† (1917), â€Å"Birds, Beasts and Flowers† (1923), â€Å"The Collected Poems of D. H. Lawrence† (1928), â€Å"The Complete Poems of D. H. Lawrence† (1964), edited by Viviande Sola Pinto and F. Warren Roberts and many others. The poem â€Å"Don’ts† is devoted to the author’s instructions, pieces of advice given to a little boy. The basic theme is the protest against narrow-minded, philistine morality, ideals and hypocrisy. This theme manifests itself in some peculiar word usage which imitates adult’s word usage in the conversation with children. The author foresees the insincere, artificial exhortation which a young boy is going to hear from mealy-mouthed adults who demand from him to be well-behaved boy. They require that a boy ry to â€Å"be a good little boy being as good as you can† [6, p. 375]. However, D. H. Lawrence insistently recommends not to listen to these pieces of advice, not to be that humble good child whom sanctimonious persons want to see. The author admonishes him to fight and to be a courageous man. The tone of the poem is moralizing and contrast between the s ignificance of theme and parodic infantility of vocabulary creates acute satirical effect. D. H. Lawrence in his poem â€Å"Don’ts† uses â€Å"polysemanticism of the word in combination with repetition and this approximates by its stylistic function to casuistry. It occurs in reference to the adjective â€Å"little† which is used here in various variants with different connotations, furthermore, in some connotations it suppresses greatly the denotative components of meaning. That is why the notion of metre is completely insignificant. Due to the fact that repetition along with parodic usage of unceremonious-informal style, especially baby-talk, are the key stylistic devices with which we should start analysis of the given poem. They are diverse by nature. Alongside with a simple repetition of two or more absolutely identical components: mealy-mouthed, mealy-mouthed, greedy-mouthed, greedy-mouthed new repetition with some variation is introduced. Such repetition is, for example, greedy-mouthed as against mealy-mouthed. Similarity between mealy-mouthed and greedy-mouthed at the same time make them be compared, however difference between them supplements the characteristic of the â€Å"sly†, â€Å"every old lout†. Guite effective is partial repetition: â€Å"earning your living while your life is lost† [6, p. 375], where morphological closeness only sharper shades that living and life are not the same. (translation from Russian ? M. Andrushko) [22, p. 126-127]. In some cases repetition also can not collocate with the usage of polysemanticism. Then its function is intensifying or emotional or even intensifying-emotional as it is in the first two lines: Fight your little fight, my boy, Fight and be a man. [6, p. 375] S emantics variations in the repetition are very interesting for the theme of the given paragraph, i. e. the usage of different lexical-semantic variants which are included in the semantic structure of one and the same word. Due to the parallel usage of the word in one context, these semantic variations accentuate differences in connotations. The word â€Å"little† is used in the given poem in two various lexical-semantic variants with antithetical connotations. In such phrases as â€Å"good little, good little boy†, â€Å"dear little girl†, â€Å"dear little home† the word little has one meaning and in such phrases as â€Å"little fight†, â€Å"let in a little air†, â€Å"a little hole in the holy prison†, â€Å" your own little bit†, â€Å"your own little cry† another meaning. â€Å"The usage of the word â€Å"little† here is guite difficult. First of all, there is need to resort to a dictionary to find out what in general is observed in the language. In the direct meaning â€Å"little† signifies the small size and is synonymic with neutral word small. In the informal style of speech this objective-logical meaning is strongly suppressed by its emotional meaning. So, little expresses sympathy, tenderness, compassion and is equivalent to affectionate diminutive suffixes of the Ukrainian language. Exactly this meaning forms the basis of the stylistic connotation of the first group of examples†. (translation from Russian ? M. Andrushko) [22, p. 127]. It is interesting that compatibility of the word â€Å"little† in this meaning with the following adjectives â€Å"dear† and â€Å"nice† is characteristic for informal speech, especially for the speech used in conversations with children. For instance, a dear little cottage, a dear little boy, a dear little kitten, a nice little wife and etc. Frequent usage of the word â€Å"little† sounds like affectation in the same way as in the conversational speech the misuse of diminutive suffixes creates an impression of insincere baby-talk. The stereotypy of those combinations used in not characteristic of direct speech shows their pretence, falsity and insincerity. The poet mocks those people who will tempt a young boy by dreams about bourgeois welfare. It is worth to be noticed that the word â€Å"little† can be used ironically, for example, one of my little ideas and even with the tone of sarcasm: â€Å"so that’s your little plan, is it! † [22, p. 375]. Since in the semantic structure of the word â€Å"little†, is included the meaning which is synonymic to the adjectives: unimportant, mean, paltry, so this estimation is introduced in the implication of the poem and in combination with an absurd repetition makes it grotesque. It also destroys sweetness of promises about family happiness and comfort which are waiting for a good boy. The second group of examples ? â€Å"let in a little air†, â€Å" fight your little fight† etc. ? belongs to the author’s direct speech. A reader can not find here any irony, the direct meaning of a metrical rhythm is preserved. The repetition underlines the idea that even modest results of everyone’s fight for ability to breathe in â€Å"the hole prison† easier are valuable and necessary for common good. In such way this poem acquires acute social orientation. At the same time the contrast between lexical meanings of two lexical-semantic variants of one and the same word plays an important role as well. In the examined case the comparison of two variants of one and the same word occurs syntagmatically, i. e. both variants are in the text: little synonymic to affectionate diminutive suffix and little with the meaning of dimension or significance. The second type of comparison between direct and figurative meaning occurs in the following metaphors : â€Å"don’t be beholden to the herd inside the pen†, â€Å"money sty†, â€Å" holy prison†. The first metaphor is the metaphor in which in the text only one member of comparison is represented, i. e. only figurative meaning where people are resigned to their fate, to the institutionalization of D. H. Lawrence surrounding world.   Alongside with many other stylistic devices these metaphors express very clearly the author’s attitude towards reality. Repetition can perform several functions simultaneously. In â€Å"Song of Hiawatha† by H. W. Longfellow repetition creates folk colour, song rhythm and underlines interrelation of separate images combining them in one common picture: Should you ask me, whence these stories? Whence these legends and traditions, With the odors of the forest With the dew and damp of meadows, With the curling smoke of wigwams, With the rushing of great rivers, With their frequent repetitions, And their wild reverberations As of thunder in the mountains? I should answer, I should tell you, From the forests and the prairies, From the great lakes of the Northland, From the land of the Ojibways, From the land of the Dacotahs, From the mountains, moors, and fen-lands Where the heron, the Shuh-shuh-gah, Feeds among the reeds and rushes. I repeat them as I heard them From the lips of Nawadaha, The musician, the sweet singer. Should you ask where Nawadaha Found these songs so wild and wayward, Found these legends and traditions, I should answer, I should tell you, In the birds-nests of the forest, In the lodges of the beaver, In the hoofprint of the bison, In the eyry of the eagle! [8, p. 9-10] In these first stanzas of â€Å"Song of Hiawatha† a reader encounters with the convergence of stylistic devices and in the first place with repetitions. This convergence puts him in the genre of lyrical epic stylized in a spirit of indian national-poetical creativity. Repetition adds rhythmical and song colour to the tale and integrates the enumeration of elements concerning the nature of the land. It is interesting that frequent repetitions are mentioned intentionally and are explained by the author as borrowing from the indian singer Nawadaha. D. H. Lawrence explains the emergence of repetitions in the songs of Nawadaha as the influence of the surrounding nature ? â€Å"reverbarations/ As of thunder in the mountains† [8, p. ]. â€Å"Various kinds of repetition can be an important means of connections inside the text. Connection by means of pronouns has more specific meaning. In the given example connection is accomplished by anaphoric repetition of such pronouns as â€Å"with†, â€Å"from† and â€Å"in† together with parallel constructions and some other kinds of repetitions. † (translation from R ussian ? M. Andrushko) [22, p. 185]. Alongside with lexical synonymic repetition: â€Å"stories-legends†, â€Å"moors-fenlands† here is represented purely syntactical repetition in the form of homogeneous parts of the sentence. To be more precise, lexical synonymical repetition is like the extension of syntactical repetition. The poem by H. W. Longfellow is called a song. However, the word song is polysemantic and the meaning implied by the author is explained by three homogeneous nouns: stories, legends and traditions. The homogeneous parts of the sentence specify and details the content of the author’s opinion. The type of legends and traditions mentioned in the song is explained by a set of prepositional phrases which starts with the preposition â€Å"with†. The indirect question with the word â€Å"whence† makes us think about the sources of the song. The answer to this question is a set of similar by its syntactic function parallel constructions with anaphoric preposition â€Å"from†. Inside this syntactic convergence is the convergence of single-word components: â€Å"the forests and the prairies†, â€Å"from the mountains, moors and fenlands† [8, p. 9]. So, the usage of polysemanticism of the word in combination with repetition is very important for the right understanding of the poem’s content. 1. 2. Lingvo-stylistic potential of D. H. Lawrence’s â€Å"Don’ts† Stylistic devices and expressive means are very significant for complete understsnding and perception of the whole artistic colouring of a poem. That is why it is worth to consider some other stylistic devices in these two poems: â€Å"Don’ts† by D. H. Lawrence and â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† (Introduction) by H. W. Longfellow. In the poem â€Å"Don’ts† the author imposes upon the reader his personal attitude towards a young boy and people who surrounds that boy. The repetition brings the necessary rhythm into the utterance. There are many types of repetition in this poem. The first and the most vivid example is â€Å"Fight your little fight†. It is morphemic repetition which â€Å"is a variety of polyptoton, a figure based on the repetition of two or more words of the same stem (but belonging to different parts of speech or word classes within the same part of speech) † [9, p. 132]. Also the poem is full of lexical repetitions, especially successive or juxtaposed: a good little, a good ittle, mealy-mouthed, mealy-mouthed, greedy-mouthed, greedy-mouthed, dear little, dear little, don’t drink, don’t drink. Apart from successive, there is ordinary repetitions of the word â€Å"dear† in the collocation with different nouns: girl, mother, home and the repetition of the word â€Å"hit-hit† which is invented by the author. The most interesting and effective is the repetition in strong positions ? lexical anaphora which in this poem is represented by the word â€Å"don’t†: Don’t be sucked in by the su-superior, don’t swallow the culture bait, don’t drink, don’t drink and get beerier and beerier†¦ [6, p. 375] To grasp and hold the reader’s interest the author uses a number of epithets. Semantically they are classified into two major groups: 1) Without the violation of semantic agreement: a good little boy, dear little girl, dear old mother, dear little home, little fresh air, own little try, comfortable feeling, culture bait. All these epithets, apart from the last two, structurally are pair epithets. The last one is a word-epithet or simple. Also they all belong to explanatory epithets because they indicate an important features of the defined object. 2) With the violation of semantic agreement to the metaphoric epithets belong mealy-mouthed cowardice, golden opinions, sweet joys, dull death. Structurally they are word epithets. A significant metaphor is used in this poem: don’t swallow the culture bait. This is verb metaphor, where bait is tenor and the vehicle is food which is only implied by a reader. According to the structure this metaphor is simple. D. H. Lawrence by this stylistic device wants to say that a little boy does not believe the words of other people. One more special variety of metaphor is allusion. D. H. Lawrence resorts to allusion in the last line of the poem ? â€Å"the risen Christ should be risen†. The author makes reference to the Bible, to the religious theme. Concerning the vocabulary of the poem it is quite neutral, although some peculiar, special words occur. For example, the word â€Å"lout†. The origin of this word is uncertain and it has some stylistic colouring. The Oxford Dictionary gives the following definition: an uncouth and aggressive man or boy. Another interesting word is â€Å"suck in† which is slang and means â€Å" to deceive†. The author also creates a new word ? â€Å"hit-hit† which is repeated twice. This stanzaic poem with the cross rhyme is one of the D. H. Lawrence’s masterpieces. 1. 3. The main stylistic-semantic features of H. W. Longfellow’s poem â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† (Introduction) â€Å"Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1807-1882) was the most widely published and most famous American poet of the 1800’s. His reputation among critics declined sharply after his death, and he had much less influence on modern poetry than such other poets of his day as Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson. However, many of his poems remain among the most familiar in American literature. Longfellow’s best-known longer works include â€Å"Evangeline†, â€Å"the Song of Hiawatha†, and â€Å"The Courtship of Miles Standish†. Among his popular shorter poems are â€Å"The Village Blacksmith†, â€Å"The Children’s Hour†, â€Å"Paul Revere’s Ride†, â€Å"The Wreck of the Hesperus†, and â€Å"Excelsior†. Longfellow’s works achieved great popularity in Europe as well as in the United States. He was the first American writer to be honored in the Poet’s Corner of Westminster Abbey in London. † [15, p. 448] â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† is regarded as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s greatest, most characteristic, and most original epic poem. Intentionally epic in scope, it was described by its author as â€Å"this Indian Edda†. It is, from beginning to end, a metrical version of legends originating with the Algonquin family of Indians. H. W. Longfellow had taken an interest in Indians from early youth, and early formed a plan to commemorate their legends in his verse. From Schoolcraft he obtained nearly all the material utilized in the cycle he named â€Å"Hiawatha†. Originally his intension was to group the legends about the mythical personality of the Algonquin deity ? Manabozho. The poet’s imagination has invested his hero with much of the character of the strong man who bound together the most compact and efficient league of Indian tribes. The Song of Hiawatha† was begun on June 25, 1854, and its 5,314 lines were concluded on March 29, 1855. Its meter, derived from that of the great Finnish epic, the Kalevala, consists of eight-syllabled lines, with stresses falling on the first, third, fifth and seventh syllables. Octosyllabic verse, whether trochaic, as here, or iambic, as in Scott ’s â€Å"Lays of the Last Minstrel†, is by far the easiest of all measures to write; and the fact that â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† is unrhymed made the American’s task greatly easier than that of the Scotchman. H. W. Longfellow left a careful pronouncing vocabulary of all the proper names used from the Indian languages in his poem. These show an almost bewildering confusion of vowels, some having the quality of French, some that of English. The name of the titular hero himself is to be pronounced as if spelled hee-ah-wah? -tha, though the French transliteration made it Haye? nwatha, with the accent on the second syllable. The proper names throughout are used with the rarest skill, both to give melody and variety to the verse and to lend it that more subtle quality known as atmosphere. The main character appears in the tales of Indians under various names. He endowed with many fine features and embodied the idea of overcoming every kind of discord, rejection of strife and wars in the name of labor peace on generous ground. H. W. Longfellow is rich in some special vocabulary or different realities: geographical, ethnographic, religious, mystical. Geographical realities mainly include the names of settlements, their location, characteristics of plant and wildlife and natural conditions. Using a large number of realities, indicating the birds, animals and insects, H. W. Longfellow was trying to show the diversity of nature and its inhabitants. He mentions such birds as â€Å"Shuh, shuh-gah, the heron†, â€Å"Chetowaik, the plover†, â€Å"Mahng, the loon†, â€Å"the wild-goose, Wawa†, â€Å"the grouse the Mushkodasa†[8, p. 9-10]. Another special vocabulary concerns the names of nations, since each nation has evolved a way of life and culture that initially led them to division into different clans: Ojibways, Dacotahs, Hurons and others. Several times the author refers to â€Å"the vale of Tawasentha†[8, p. 10]. the word â€Å"vale† according to Oxford American Dictionary is a poetic term for a valley. In the introduction a reader can also meet an archaic word â€Å"ye† which according to Collins Cobuild Dictionary means â€Å"an old-fashioned, poetic, or religious word for you when you are talking to more than one person†. Concerning the stylistic devices, repetition is one of the most frequent stylistic means in Longfellow’s poem. In the poem it can be founded on all levels of language, but the most frequent used is lexical anaphora: â€Å"With the odors of the forest With the dew and damp of meadows, With the curling smoke of wigwams, With the rushing of great rivers, With their frequent repetitions†¦Ã¢â‚¬  [8, p. 9] or â€Å"From the forests and the prairies, From the great lakes of the Northland, From the land of the Ojibways, From the land of the Dacotahs, From the mountains, moors, and fen-lands †¦Ã¢â‚¬  [8, p. 9] and some others starting with prepositions â€Å"from†, â€Å"and†, â€Å"by†. These lines also can be characterized as parallel anaphoric syntactic constructions. Apart from lexical anaphora, the author uses distant repetition of such hrases as â€Å"pleasant water-courses†, â€Å"to this Song of Hiawatha†, morphemic repetition ? â€Å"Sang the Song† [8, p. 11] ? which belongs to root repetition. Affixational repetition in the line â€Å"There are longings, yearnings, strivings† brings the necessary rhythm into the utterance. In the same time, this line is a nice example of gradation, the type of gradation ? climax. Its function is to give a vivid emotional-evaluative cha racteristic of the phenomenon described. One more instance of gradation: â€Å"how he lived, and toiled, and suffered† only gives some additional emotive effect. Antonymous syntactic parallel constructions: â€Å"Should you ask me†, â€Å"I should answer† form antithesis. A very nice lexical-syntactic stylistic device used in the poem is simile : And the thunder in the mountains, Whose innumerable echoes Flap like eagles in their eyries†¦ [8, p. 11] It describes the nature of the valley, the weather in the mountains and this description trough using simile gives a reader the clear picture of that locality. The poem is rich in epithets among which it is worth to mention such as â€Å"songs so wild and wayward†(a pair metaphoric epithet), â€Å"melancholy marshes†(simple metaphoric), â€Å"green and silent valley†(the first is tautological, the second is metaphoric, structurally it is a pair epithet), â€Å"singing pine-trees†(simple, metaphoric), â€Å"wondrous birth†(simple emotive proper or affective epithet) and some others. However, the above mentioned epithets in the best way to convey the mood, feeling and emotions of the poem. The excessive use of repetition have made â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† the most parodied poem in the English language, spawning more than a thousand variations, some of them as long as the original. Despite the flaws of critics, caused by H. W. Longfellow’s choice to mimic the solemn, unrhymed tetrameter of the Finns’ Kalevala, â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† is still widely accepted as a significant nineteenth-century American poem. Chapter 2 Romantic and lyrical figure of Robert Burns 2. 1. General stylistic features of R. Burns’s â€Å"My Heart’s in the Highlands† Robert Burns was one of the great poets of the eighteens century and the only great poet ever to emerge from the British peasant class†[11,p. 23]. According to Merrian-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature, R. Burns was â€Å"national poet of Scotland who wrote lyrics and songs in the Scottish dialect†[12, p. 187]. John Anderson mentions that â€Å"most of Robert Burns’s poetry is written in Scotch brogue. The poet used dialect deliberately. It was not that he knew no better. You will notice that when it pleased him, he could turn out stanzas in pure English as polished and smooth as those of any classic poet†[13, p. 36]. â€Å"Burns was interested in authentic folk songs. He collected about 300 original and traditional Scottish songs for books compiled in his day, including The Scots Musical Museum (1787). Burns wrote many poems to be sung to Scottish folk tunes†[14, p. 716]. He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death he became a great source of inspiration to the founders of both liberalism and socialism, and a cultural icon in Scotland and among the Scottish Di aspora around the world. His poem â€Å"Auld Lang Syne† is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and â€Å"Scots Wha Hae† served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. Other poems and songs of Burns that remain well known across the world today include â€Å"A Red, Red Rose†, â€Å"A Man’s a Man for A’That†, â€Å"To a Louse†, â€Å"To a Mouse†, â€Å"The Battle of Sherramuir†, â€Å"Tam o’Shanter†, and â€Å"Ae Fond Kiss†. However, the poem which we are going to analyse is called â€Å"My Heart’s in the Highlands†. The title of this poem tells us quite a bit. The poet identifies a place that is important to him, and the word â€Å"heart† indicates a strong emotional attachment to the Highlands. The poem is lyric, in fact, a song, and the musical language expresses the emotions of the speaker. In this poem we can assume that the speaker and the poet are the same. It is a poem about Robert Burns leaving his home, the Highlands. He looks back on his life to remember all of the good times he had there. This shows love for a place, the Highlands of Scotland and proves that R. Burns was homesick. Concerning the poetical form, R. Burns wrote four-line stanzas, called quatrains, with a very simple aabbccdd rhyme scheme. The metrical pattern includes an opening iambus followed by two dactyl feet and ends with an accented syllable. Since the dactyl feet prevail, the poem is written in dactylic tetrameter. Poets often vary the meter and feet slightly to avoid a work that sounds like a metronome. This poem has strong visual elements. R. Burns writes about the â€Å"wild deer†, â€Å"green valleys†, and â€Å"wild-hanging woods†. In addition, there is an aural image in the line â€Å"Farewell to the torrents and loud-pouring floods†[1, p. 54]. These images convey the poet’s love for the region, a love that the audience recognizes. Thus, the sensory images elicit an emotional response. R. Burns uses repetition to great effect. Not only does he repeat the first stanza as the last, which is called in stylistics lexical framing, he also repeats words: â€Å"Wherever I†, â€Å" farewell to the†. [1, p. 254]. In the third stanza the author uses repetition in strong position ? lexical anaphora: â€Å"Farewell to the mountains high coverd with snow; Farewell to the straths and green valleys below; Farewell to the forrests and wild-hanging woods; Farwell to the torrents and loud-pouring floods. † [1, p. 254] By using repetition, the poet makes â€Å"My Heart’s in the Highlands† sound like a song. R. Burns also uses the devices to emphasize his ideas. The word â€Å"Highlands† is repeated eight times, and â€Å"Farewell† is repeated six times. The most repeated phrase â€Å"My Heart’s in the Highlands† contains the most important idea in the poem. At the same time it is a very nice noun metaphor (T ? Heart, V ? implied by the author: human body or even the author himself). According to the degree of unexpectedness, it is genuine metaphor which evokes images and suggests some associations, reveals the author’s emotional attitude towards the described place. Repetition creates an emotional response because the reader must acknowledge the importance of the poet’s attachment to the place. Similarly, the poet uses parallelism, the repetition of the same grammatical form structure, to convey his message and elicit an emotional response: â€Å"Chasing the wild deer, and following the roe†, â€Å"Farewell to the Highlands, farewell to the North†, â€Å"Wherever I wander, wherever I love†[1, p. 54]. The whole third stanza also serves as an example of parallelism. All these repetitions add the feeling of homesickness and nostalgia in the poem. The opposition in this poem is between â€Å"the Highlands† and â€Å"here†. This opposition in stylistics is called antithesis. Since a reader do not know what kind of plac e â€Å"here† is, we imagine that it is quite the opposite of the Highlands. This establishes the sense of sadness, the sense of feeling out of place that most people felt at some time. A significant stylistic device is periphrasis : â€Å"the birth-place of Valour, the country of Worth†. The author in such way gives proper names to his Highlands. He wants to emphasize that his country is very beautiful and he will miss it. Usage of epithets enriches the aesthetic perception of the poem. In the poem we can find such epithets as â€Å"wild-hanging woods† which is compound structurally and metaphorical semantically; â€Å"loud-pouring floods† also compound metaphorical epithet. â€Å"Wild deer†, â€Å"green vallies† are examples of simple tautological epithets. R. Burns also resorts to using a Scottish dialect. He mentions the word â€Å"Straths† which means a broad mountain valley. John Anderson writes about R. Burns: â€Å"Burns used dialect because ? however well educated a Scotsman may be ? when he is with those he loves and trusts, he drops naturally into brogue. It is cozy, familiar speech of the home†¦Burns, writing for his neighbors and cronies, uses the daily speech, homelike and comfortable as their old clothes†[13, p. 336]. 2. 2. The style in â€Å"My Heart’s in the Highlands† In the poem â€Å"My Heart’s in the Highlands†, the reflectively longing and lyrical tones reflect an inner feeling of yearning for the Highlands and a love for the land that liberates those who have been exposed to it. The narrator consistently reminisces about his memories of the Highlands and as he does so, he explains these feelings in a rhythmic and melodic fashion. The feelings that the narrator exhibits reflect the natural tendency of humans to maintain a connection with their original homeland. The poem’s diction emphasizes the liberation that the Highlands provide and the narrator’s feelings pertaining to his deep affection toward the Highlands. As the narrator â€Å"wander[s]† throughout the Highlands, he ventures to places as widespread as â€Å"mountains covered in snow† where he [â€Å"chases†] wild deer. The Highlands are a place where one experiences freedom as evidence by how expansive they appear. The lack of bothersome interaction and the presence of wide-open spaces allow the narrator to maintain a sense of no restrictions. As the Highlands, or the â€Å"birthplace of valor†, are described, it is evident that the narrator is â€Å"forever [in] love† with them, and that memories of the Highlands are with him â€Å"wherever† the narrator travels. The Highlands symbolize bold strength that has stuck with the narrator throughout his life. This results in the narrator feeling a close bond with the Highlands. Along with the diction, the point of view allows for observation of the various tones. The first-person point of view reinforces the feelings of wistfulness and release that the poem conveys. The narrator says â€Å"my Heart is not here† in order to convey the fact that he longs to be in â€Å"[his] contry of Worth†, or the Highlands. There is a sense of immediacy as the narrator describes his experiences roaming throughout the hills and vallyes, and his longing is directly conveyed through the first-person point of view. It is clear that, as the Highlands are described, the narrator would rather be there than anywhere else, and the first-person point of view is beneficial in conveying this. The narrator says that he will think of the Highlands â€Å"wherever I wander,† since he claims that â€Å"my heart’s in the Highlands, where’er I go. † The narrator is not able to let go of his thoughts and feelings about the Highlands when he is not there. This reflects the strong feelings that the narrator has for the Highlands and how he feels incomplete without their presence. Other things, such as the syntax, serve to provide a deeper meaning for the poem. The syntax in the poem moves from short phrases separated by commas, to a rhythmic and repetitive farewell, and finally to a structure that parallels the opening. Initially, the text is very ephemeral, and there is almost no defined rhythm associated with it. The narrator is incredibly attached to the Highlands, and his thoughts seem almost unfocused as he continually thinks about and longs for the Highlands. This reflects how detached the narrator is to his current life and how he would rather be somewhere where he can live with no restrictions. In the middle, the poem gains a defined rhythm, and repetition occurs. The narrator repetitively says goodbye to the Highlands, and during this farewell, he drifts off into somewhat of a euphoric daydream. His thoughts flow freely and in a distinct rhythm. This free-thinking coincides with the freedom that the narrator feels when he is in the Highlands. In the end, the text returns to the brief and disjointed format that it begins with. The narrator realizes that he is not physically at the Highlands, and he resumes wishing that he was. The end reflects a snap back to reality that occurs as the narrator finishes his imaginative farewell. Once again, the broken-up text reflects the uneasiness that the narrator has with his current life. While the syntax serves to provide the poem with a deeper meaning, the imagery and detail expound upon the meaning is evident on the surface of the text. The poem’s imagery and detail reflect both the physical characteristics that make the Highlands such a special area and the deep emotional love that the narrator has for them. The Highlands are very expansive areas that span from â€Å"mountains high covered with snow† to the â€Å"green valleys below,† and the narrator feels a connection with these areas as he â€Å"a-chas[es] the deer† across the hills. The narrator feels free in an environment as widespread as this. Because of this freedom, he reaches a comfort level that is unmatched in any other respect; he even feels comfortable enough to chase wild deer across the hills. The narrator’s passion for â€Å"the country of Worth† is evidenced by the fact that his â€Å"heart is not here. † His strong love for the Highlands makes it seem as though no other land can be compared to them. In fact, he cannot devote his unyielding love to anything other than the Highlands because no love that he has ever experienced has been as strong as his love for the Highlands. The imagery, syntax, point-of-view, and diction each reflect the two original tones of the poem. Because they demonstrate that the poem exhibits a reflective longing for the past and that the text is lyrical and expressive of feelings, the styles of writing that the poem exhibits are very effective. As in A Dictionary of English Literature is said: â€Å"Burns is important because he deserted the artificial tradition of eighteenth-century poetry, replacing poetic diction with the pungent vernacular, false sentiment with true tenderness, sharms with realities. He taught the Romantics, in Wordsworth’s words: How Verse may build a princely throne On humble truth. † To the world at large he is merely a singer of timeless song†[19, p. 45]. Chapter 3 Lexical, syntactic, expressive means and stylistic devices in: 3. 1. â€Å"Young and Old† by Charles Kingsley As The Encyclopedia Americana informs:â€Å"Charles Kingsley (1819-1875) was English clergyman, author, a nd teacher and a leader in social and economic reform movements†¦A founder of the Christian Socialist movement, he was an active supporter of the British working-class movement known as Chartism, as is demonstrated in his early novels ? Yeast (his first novel, originally published in Fraser’s Magazine in 1848) and the powerful Alton Locke (1850). Openly didactic, they were meant to educate the upper classes in their social responsibilities. Ch. Kingsley is best known for his later novels, which include historical romances and children’s stories. Perhaps the most popular novels were Hypatia (1853) and Westward Ho! (1855)†¦Among his works for children in The Water-Babies (1863), a fairy tale based on natural history† [16, p. 420]. Our task is to analyze one of the poems by Ch. Kingsley â€Å"Young and Old†. This poem originally appeared as a song sung by a character in the Reverend’s book entitled â€Å"The Water-Babies†. Before we get into the specifics of symbols I would like to dwell upon the meter and rhyme scheme. This poem is written in an altered iambic trimester. The alteration is very slight: a substitution of a single tribrachin place of the last iambic meter of every odd line. The simple rhyme scheme ababcdcdefefghgh contributes to the easiness of the song and prevents the subject from feeling overly forced by use of other unnecessarily more intricate schemes. This poem is about the dissimilarities of youth and old age. There is a certain sentimental connotation to be further explored, but the basis of the poem is rooted in the differences. In the first stanza the author addresses youth. A spry horse to carry along the boot, and the idea that â€Å"every dog [has] his day† paired alongside the comments of a young world and queenly lasses provide us with a clear idea that the topic we broach is that of youth. The line â€Å"young blood must have its course, lad, and every dog his day† come across as a call to action, demanding perhaps as busier and more productive youth. Additionally, we are treated to a slue of natural imagery in the form of green trees, geese, swans, the horse etc. The allusion to a simple, natural order is a compelling one. This is continued in the second stanza, though the trees are marked as being brown, the sport of the previously accelerated and youthful life has gone stale, the cart wheels are run down, and the lad is forced to â€Å"creep home† and take his place among the â€Å"spent† and â€Å"maimed† occupants. The final lines provide the wish that, God willing, you are alongside the one that you love. The poem â€Å"Young and Old† is full of many kinds of stylistic devices. The main stylistic device used in the text under analysis is antithesis: â€Å"When all the world is young, lad/ When all the world is old, lad†[5, p. 334]. The whole poem is written by means of parallel constuctions: â€Å" And all the trees are green; And every goose a swan, lad, And every lass a queen;† [5, p. 334] The quatation above mentioned also is a vivid example of repetition in strong positions, namely lexical anaphora. Another example containing anaphora: â€Å"And all the trees are brown; And all the sport is stale, lad, And all the wheels run down†¦Ã¢â‚¬  [5, p. 334] Apart from lexical anaphora, there is also lexical epistrophe. In every two stanzas the word â€Å"lad† is repeated. A very significant stylistic device used by Ch. Kingsley is ellipsis or apokoinu: â€Å"And all the trees are green, And every goose [is] a swan, lad†¦Ã¢â‚¬  [5, p. 334] In the second stanza predicate is omitted but it is implied by the author. I can point out another instance of an ellipsis: â€Å"Young blood must have its course, lad And every [must have] dog his day† [5, p. 334] Concerning metaphors, they are not so numerous. However, the poem contains two structurally very similar metaphors: â€Å"When all the world(T) is young(V)† and â€Å"When all the world(T) is old(V)†. They are, in my opinion, personal metaphor, i. e. personification. Here world obtains the characteristics of human. It can be young or become old. Also these two lines are, to some extent, hyperbolized by usage of the word â€Å"all†. This poem was analyzed by T. Hoagwood. He shows that it is impossible for the song to be fully understood when first encountered in The Water-Babies. It is only later in the story that we recognize that the song is the old dame’s lament for her son Grimes who left her. The realization at the end of the novel that Grimes is her son â€Å"enables us to revisit the lyric and to revise our understanding of its latent, private, and even secret significance for the grieving old dame†. 3. 2. â€Å"Out of Sight, Out of Mind† by Barnabe Googe One more poem which we are going to analyze is called â€Å"Out of Sight, Out of Mind† by Barnabe Googe. According to The Encyclopedia Americana, B. Googe (1540-1594) was â€Å"English poet and translator. Googe’s only original work is Eglogs, Epytaphes and Sonnets, a collection of poems published in 1563. His eclogues are among the earliest examples of English pastoral poetry. He also translated into English some minor contemporary works in Latin prose†[17, p. 742]. As a translator, Googe is noted for his English versions of Marcellus Palingeniuss Zodiake of Life (1560) and Conrad Heresbachs Four Books of Husbandry (1577). Googes reputation, which considerably declined following his death in 1594, has been revived by literary historians who recognize in his work transmissions of both ideas and stylistic practices that would influence such better-known English writers as Edmund Spenser, William Shakespeare, and John Milton. In â€Å"Out of Sight, Out of Mind† B. Googe worked with a proverbial theme. He stacks caesuras in thirteen lines of the eighteen-line poem, all of them more or less in the exact middle. Because of the repetition, these caesuras speed up the lines rather than slowing them down, hence allowing the lines from which Googe suddenly omits caesural pause ? â€Å"The heavy heart breeds mine unrest†, â€Å"Such pleasures rife shall I obtain/ When distance doth depart us twain† [4, p. 96] ? to gather greater emphasis since, on top of the newly introduced spondees and trochees, they are also made to slow down. This particular poem also demonstrates Googe’s stoical approach to verse as an adequate container for human feeling. He combines a monotonous rhythm and rhyme scheme with a predominantly monosyllabic lines, pithy both in content and length. The author uses in his poem repetition in strong position through the whole poem namely chain-repetition: â€Å"The oftener seen, the more I lust, The more I lust, the more I smart, The mire I smart, the more I trust, The more I trust, the heavier heart†¦Ã¢â‚¬  [4, p. 96] This repetition brings the necessary rhythm into the utterance. A very interesting device used in the poem is gradation. A reader can find an emotional climax that expresses the ideas in a descending order of significance: The rarer seen, the les in mind, The less in mind, the lesser pain, The lesser pain, less grief I find, The lesser grief, the greater gain† [4, p. 96] The leading feature of the poem is usage of comparison. I. R. Galperin in his book â€Å"Stylistics† states that â€Å"comparison means weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the degree of their sameness or difference†[3, p. 167]. In â€Å"Out of Sight, Out of Mind† we also can observe comparison. It is almost in each line: â€Å"the oftener/ the more†, â€Å"the more/ the heavier†, â€Å"the rarer/ the less†, â€Å"the lesser/the greater†, â€Å"the more/the happier†. A device greatly favoured by the writer is irony: â€Å"Such pleasure rife shall I obtain When distance doth depart us twain† [4, p. 96]. According to Lototska K. â€Å"English Stylistics†: â€Å"Irony (from the Greek â€Å"eironeia†= hidden mockery) is a device based on the interaction of dictionary and contextual meanings standing in opposition†¦Irony is transference by contrast†[9, p. 86]. The last two lines of the poem â€Å"Out of Sight, Out of Mind† is the vivid instance of irony. The whole poem is very symbolic. Even the tittle means the idea that if you do not see someone or something frequently, you will forget about it. Barnabe Googe wrote poems in the Native Tradition, a species of plain style. In this relatively early period, accents were heavy, unaccents were light, alliteration survived from old Anglo-Saxon verse, and the subject was usually serious. Conclusion The general purpose of the paper was to investigate stylistic, linguistic, lexical and syntactic peculiarities of five selected poems by different authors, to check earlier observations on the subject of stylistic analysis and to obtain new information. This course paper explored the comprehensive study of stylistic devices. Despite the fact that there are many works devoted to the problem under analysis some important aspects such as structural-semantic parameters of the poems and some lexical stylistic devices have not been fully investigated. In this work, to some extent, were used the elements of stylistics under lexico-syntactic patterns and choices, phonological, morphological and graphological devices to analyze such poems as â€Å"Don’ts† by D. H. Lawrence, â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† (Introduction ) by H. W. Longfellow, â€Å" My Heart’s in the Highlands † by R. Burns, â€Å"Young and Old† by Ch. Kingsley, and â€Å"Out of Sight, Out of Mind† by B. Googe. The display of stylistics in the poems, their functions and their effects have been the major focus of this research work. To make a striking impression on one’s readers and stir up their emotions, nothing else could be done to achieve this purpose than employing the right and appropriate use of language. The study revealed that poets made use of various stylistic devices in a way that interrupts the normal syntactical flow of the sentences to secure emphasis and focus the reader’s attention. As can be seen from the data, each poet uses different techniques in his poem. In â€Å"Don’ts† by D. H. Lawrence we can find polysemanticism of the words in combination with repetition, metaphors, epithets, allusion. â€Å"The Song of Hiawatha† by H. W. Longfellow is rich in special vocabulary and different realities. The stylistic value of R. Burns’s poem â€Å"My Heart’s in the Highlands† can not be overestimated. Ch. Kingsley and B. Googe are considered to be masters in usage of stylistic devices. Under the lexico-syntactic choices, the authors use similes, metaphors which are both related to the topic of similarity to give clearness and liveliness to words. Under the phonological devices, rhyming scheme, consonance, assonance are found and they have been used to reinforce meaning. They also provide tone and musical colour and aid memorality. Different kinds of repetition, which is greatly favoured by the authors, and punctuation marks have been used to play various roles to achieve cohesion in discourse for varying stylistic effects. All of these things found out have worked together in attaining and ensuring effective meaning and communication. The choice of words by the poets also plays a very important role in meaning making. It helps the reader to understand the intention and the message the poets were trying to pass across. The obtained results give a clue to the understanding of stylistic analysis. As the previous researches on the given theme are not numerous, it is difficult to compare the findings of this research paper with the results of other study. In the course of investigation I had solid theoretical base. The inconsistency of data is probably a consequence of the lack of practical material and previous research. The problems associated with stylistic analysis and meaning of various expressive means are far from being solved and require further theoretical and experimental efforts. To sum up, different poets in their poems cultivates various styles and techniques which are worth of being studied. Each poem that was analyzed in this course paper fascinates readers by its stylistic originality.